Sistema de comércio romano

Comércio no mundo romano.
publicado em 12 de abril de 2018.
O comércio regional, inter-regional e internacional era uma característica comum do mundo romano. Uma mistura de controle estatal e uma abordagem de mercado livre asseguravam que os bens produzidos em um local pudessem ser exportados para longe. Cereais, vinho e azeite, em particular, eram exportados em grandes quantidades, enquanto na outra direção vinham importações significativas de metais preciosos, mármore e especiarias.
Fatores que impulsionam o comércio.
De um modo geral, como nas civilizações antigas e contemporâneas, os romanos gradualmente desenvolveram uma economia mais sofisticada após a criação de um excedente agrícola, movimento populacional e crescimento urbano, expansão territorial, inovação tecnológica, tributação, disseminação da cunhagem e não insignificantemente, precisa alimentar a grande cidade de Roma e fornecer seu enorme exército onde quer que esteja em campanha.
Propaganda.
A economia do mundo romano exibia características de subdesenvolvimento e de alto desempenho. Elementos do primeiro, alguns historiadores têm argumentado (nomeadamente M. I.Finley), são:
uma dependência excessiva da agricultura, uma lenta difusão da tecnologia, o alto nível de consumo das cidades locais, em vez do comércio regional, um baixo nível de investimento na indústria.
No entanto, há também evidências de que, do século II aC até o século II dC, houve um aumento significativo na proporção de trabalhadores envolvidos nas indústrias de produção e serviços e maior comércio entre as regiões em produtos essenciais e manufaturados. No final do império, embora o comércio no leste tenha aumentado - estimulado pela fundação de Constantinopla -, o comércio no império ocidental declinou.
A atitude romana para o comércio era um pouco negativa, pelo menos das classes mais altas. A propriedade da terra e a agricultura eram altamente consideradas como uma fonte de riqueza e status, mas o comércio e a indústria eram vistos como uma busca menos nobre pelos abastados. No entanto, aqueles ricos o suficiente para investir muitas vezes superavam seus escrúpulos e empregavam escravos, libertos e agentes (negociadores) para administrar seus negócios e colher as muitas vezes vastas recompensas da atividade comercial.
Propaganda.
Bens Negociáveis.
Enquanto a evidência arqueológica do comércio pode às vezes ser irregular e deturpada, uma combinação de fontes literárias, cunhagem e registros indevidos como naufrágios ajuda a criar uma imagem mais clara do que os romanos negociavam, em que quantidade e onde.
O comércio envolvia alimentos (por exemplo, azeitonas, peixe, carne, cereais, sal, alimentos preparados, como molho de peixe, azeite, vinho e cerveja), produtos de origem animal (por exemplo, couro e couro), objetos feitos de madeira, vidro ou metais, têxteis. , cerâmica e materiais para fabricação e construção, como vidro, mármore, madeira, lã, tijolos, ouro, prata, cobre e estanho. Finalmente, havia, claro, também o substancial comércio de escravos.
O fato de muitos bens terem sido produzidos como especialidades regionais em fazendas muitas vezes muito grandes, por exemplo, vinho do Egito ou azeite do sul da Espanha, apenas aumentou o comércio inter-regional de mercadorias. Que grandes fazendas possam produzir um superávit para o comércio é evidenciado em sítios arqueológicos em todo o império: produtores de vinho no sul da França com caves capazes de armazenar 100.000 litros, uma fábrica de azeite na Líbia com 17 prensas capazes de produzir 100.000 litros por ano, ou minas de ouro na Espanha, produzindo 9.000 quilos de ouro por ano. Embora as cidades fossem geralmente centros de consumo e não de produção, havia exceções em que as oficinas podiam produzir quantidades impressionantes de mercadorias. Estas fábricas & # 39; poderia ter sido limitada a uma força de trabalho máxima de 30, mas eles eram freqüentemente reunidos em extensas zonas industriais nas grandes cidades e portos, e no caso da cerâmica, também em áreas rurais próximas a matérias-primas essenciais (argila e madeira para os fornos). ).
Propaganda.
Os bens não eram apenas trocados em todo o mundo romano, no entanto, como portos movimentados como Gades, Ostia, Puteoli, Alexandria e Antioquia também importavam mercadorias de lugares tão distantes como a Arábia, a Índia, o Sudeste Asiático e a China. Às vezes, essas mercadorias seguiam rotas terrestres, como a bem estabelecida Rota da Seda, ou viajavam por mar através do Oceano Índico. Esse comércio internacional não se limitava necessariamente a bens de luxo como pimenta, especiarias (eg cravo, gengibre e canela), mármore colorido, seda, perfumes e marfim, como a cerâmica de baixa qualidade encontrada em naufrágios e a dispersão geográfica de lâmpadas de óleo de terracota ilustra.
Transporte de mercadorias.
Bens foram transportados através do mundo romano, mas houve limitações causadas pela falta de inovação no transporte terrestre. Os romanos são celebrados por suas estradas, mas, na verdade, ficou muito mais barato transportar mercadorias por mar do que por rio ou terra, já que a relação de custo era de aproximadamente 1: 5: 28. No entanto, deve ser lembrado que às vezes o meio de transporte foi determinado pelas circunstâncias e não por escolha e todos os três modos de transporte cresceram significativamente no primeiro e segundo séculos EC.
Embora o transporte marítimo fosse o método mais rápido e barato (1.000 milhas náuticas em 9 dias), também poderia ser o mais arriscado - sujeito aos caprichos do tempo e roubo da pirataria - e era restringido pelas estações como o período entre novembro e março ( pelo menos) foi considerado muito imprevisível para uma passagem segura.
Da análise de mais de 900 naufrágios do período romano, o tamanho mais típico de embarcação mercante possuía capacidade para 75 toneladas de mercadorias ou 1.500 ânforas, mas havia embarcações maiores capazes de transportar até 300 toneladas de mercadorias. Um exemplo interessante é o naufrágio CE Port Vendres II, dos anos 40, localizado no Mediterrâneo, na fronteira franco-espanhola. A carga era tirada de pelo menos 11 comerciantes diferentes e continha azeite, vinho doce, molho de peixe, cerâmica fina, vidro e lingotes de estanho, cobre e chumbo.
Controle do Estado do Comércio.
No período imperial, havia grande controle estatal sobre o comércio para garantir o suprimento (o sistema annona) e até mesmo uma frota mercante do estado, substituindo o sistema durante a República de pagar subsídios (vecturae) para encorajar os armadores privados. Havia um funcionário específico encarregado do suprimento de grãos (o praefectus annonae) que regulava as várias associações de armadores (collegia navicularii). O estado tributou o movimento de mercadorias entre as províncias e também controlou muitos mercados locais (nundinae) - frequentemente realizados uma vez por semana - já que o estabelecimento de um mercado por um grande proprietário de terras tinha que ser aprovado pelo Senado ou pelo imperador.
O maior gasto do estado foi com o exército, que exigiu cerca de 70% do orçamento. O aparato estatal de tributação para adquirir receita pode ser considerado um sucesso, pois, apesar da carga tributária, a prosperidade local e o crescimento econômico não foram indevidamente prejudicados.
Evidências de controle estatal podem ser vistas nos muitos bens que foram carimbados ou carregados com marcadores indicando sua origem ou fabricante e, em alguns casos, garantindo seu peso, pureza ou genuinidade. Cerâmica, ânforas, tijolos, vidro, lingotes de metal (importante para cunhagem), ladrilhos, mármore e barris de madeira eram geralmente estampados e mercadorias em geral para transporte levavam etiquetas metálicas ou selos de chumbo. Essas medidas ajudaram a controlar o comércio, fornecer garantias de produtos e evitar fraudes. Inscrições em ânforas de azeite eram particularmente detalhadas, pois indicavam o peso do recipiente vazio e do óleo adicionado, o local de produção, o nome do comerciante que os transportava e os nomes e assinaturas dos funcionários que realizavam esses controles.
O comércio também foi realizado completamente independente do estado e foi favorecido pelo desenvolvimento da atividade bancária. Embora a banca e o empréstimo de dinheiro permaneçam geralmente como um assunto local, existem registos de comerciantes a contrair um empréstimo num porto e a pagar noutro depois de os bens terem sido entregues e vendidos. Há também evidências abundantes de uma economia de livre comércio além do alcance do império e independente das cidades maiores e dos campos do exército.
Conclusão.
Quaisquer que sejam os mecanismos econômicos exatos e a proporção de estado para empresa privada, a escala do comércio no mundo romano é imensamente impressionante e nenhuma outra sociedade pré-industrial chegou nem perto. Itens funcionais mundanos como ânforas ou lamparinas a óleo foram produzidos aos milhões e estima-se que apenas em Roma a quantidade de petróleo comercializado foi de 23.000.000 quilos por ano, enquanto o consumo anual de vinho da cidade foi bem superior a 1.000.000 hectolitros, provavelmente mais perto de 2 milhões. Esses tipos de números não seriam vistos novamente até que a industrialização varresse o mundo desenvolvido muito depois que os negociantes romanos tivessem fechado seus livros contábeis e sido esquecidos pela história.
Revisão editorial Este artigo foi revisado quanto à precisão, confiabilidade e aderência aos padrões acadêmicos antes da publicação.

8 maneiras estradas ajudaram Roma governar o mundo antigo.
Estrada romana.
Os romanos revolucionaram o transporte terrestre, pavimentando uma rede de estradas que atravessavam o império.
8 maneiras estradas ajudaram Roma governar o mundo antigo.
Nome do site.
Ano publicado.
8 maneiras estradas ajudaram Roma governar o mundo antigo.
Data de acesso.
As estradas eram a força vital da Roma Antiga. Ao longo de 700 anos, os romanos construíram mais de 55.000 milhas de rodovias pavimentadas em toda a Europa - o suficiente para cercar o globo. Essas maravilhas da engenharia garantiram o rápido movimento de mercadorias, soldados e informações em todo o Império, e desempenharam um papel crucial no estreitamento das garras de Roma na Bacia do Mediterrâneo. Explore oito razões pelas quais esse notável sistema de trânsito ajudou a unir o mundo antigo.
Eles eram a chave para o poder militar de Roma.
A primeira grande estrada romana - a famosa Via Appia, ou “rainha das estradas” - foi construída em 312 a. C. para servir como uma rota de abastecimento entre a Roma republicana e seus aliados em Cápua durante a Segunda Guerra Samnita. A partir de então, os sistemas rodoviários muitas vezes surgiram da conquista romana. Quando as legiões abriram caminho pela Europa, os romanos construíram novas estradas para ligar as cidades capturadas a Roma e estabelecê-las como colônias. Essas rotas asseguravam que os militares romanos pudessem ultrapassar e manobrar seus inimigos, mas também ajudavam na manutenção diária do Império. A redução do tempo de viagem e a fadiga marchando permitiram que as legiões de patas velozes movimentassem-se a até 20 milhas por dia para responder a ameaças externas e a revoltas internas. Mesmo as partes mais isoladas do mundo romano poderiam esperar ser prontamente supridas ou reforçadas no caso de uma emergência, diminuindo a necessidade de unidades de guarnição grandes e dispendiosas em postos fronteiriços avançados.
Eles eram incrivelmente eficientes.
Como as estradas romanas eram projetadas com a velocidade da viagem em mente, elas geralmente seguiam uma trilha notavelmente reta pelo campo. Agrimensores de terra, ou "gromatici", começaram o processo de construção usando postes de observação para mapear meticulosamente a rota mais direta de um destino para outro. As estradas resultantes costumavam disparar em subidas íngremes, e pequenas pontes e túneis foram construídos para garantir que o caminho pudesse atravessar rios ou atravessar montanhas. Mesmo nos casos em que a estrada foi forçada a desviar-se de seu curso, os romanos tipicamente optavam por curvas fechadas e curvas em curvas extensas para preservar seu desenho em forma de flecha. A Grã-Bretanha Fosse Way, por exemplo, apenas desviou alguns quilômetros de curso ao longo de toda a sua distância de 180 milhas.
Eles foram habilmente projetados.
Os construtores romanos usavam quaisquer materiais que estivessem à mão para construir suas estradas, mas seu projeto sempre empregava várias camadas para durabilidade e nivelamento. As equipes começaram cavando trincheiras rasas de três pés e erguendo pequenas paredes de contenção ao longo de ambos os lados da rota proposta. A parte inferior da estrada era geralmente feita de terra e argamassa nivelada ou areia coberta com pequenas pedras. Isto foi seguido por camadas de fundação de pedras esmagadas ou cascalho cimentadas com argamassa de cal. Finalmente, a camada superficial foi construída usando blocos ordenadamente arranjados feitos de cascalho, seixos, minério de ferro ou lava vulcânica endurecida. Estradas foram construídas com uma coroa e valas adjacentes para garantir a fácil drenagem da água, e em algumas regiões chuvosas elas foram ainda aninhadas em bermas levantadas conhecidas como "aggers" para evitar inundações.
Eles eram fáceis de navegar.
Enquanto percorriam uma das muitas estradas de Roma, viajantes cansados ​​podiam se guiar por uma coleção detalhada de marcadores de quilômetros. Muito parecido com os sinais de trânsito nas estradas interestaduais e rodovias modernas, esses pilares de pedra davam a distância até a cidade mais próxima em quilômetros romanos e instruíam o viajante sobre os melhores lugares para parar. Eles também forneceram informações sobre quando a estrada foi construída, quem a construiu e quem a consertou por último. Para incorporar a ideia de que “todos os caminhos levam a Roma”, o imperador Augusto chegou a ver que um chamado “marco dourado” foi colocado no Fórum Romano. Fundido a partir de bronze dourado, este monumento listou a distância de todos os portões da cidade e foi considerado o ponto de convergência do sistema rodoviário do Império.
Eles incluíam uma rede sofisticada de casas de correios e pousadas de beira de estrada.
Juntamente com as placas de trânsito e os marcadores de milhas, as estradas romanas também estavam alinhadas com hotéis estatais e estações de caminho. A mais comum dessas antigas paradas de descanso eram as estações de troca de cavalos, ou "mutações", localizadas a cada dezesseis quilômetros ao longo da maioria das rotas. Essas simples casas de correios consistiam de estábulos onde os viajantes do governo podiam trocar seu cavalo sem fôlego ou jumento por uma montaria nova. Trocar cavalos era especialmente importante para os mensageiros imperiais, que tinham a tarefa de levar as comunicações e as receitas fiscais pelo Império a uma velocidade vertiginosa. Parando em várias casas de correio, os mensageiros podiam se deslocar até 60 milhas em um único dia. Juntamente com as “mutações” mais comuns, os viajantes também poderiam esperar encontrar hotéis de beira de estrada, ou “mansiones”, aproximadamente a cada 20 milhas. Cada “mansio” oferecia alojamento básico para as pessoas e seus animais, além de um lugar para comer, tomar banho, consertar vagões ou até contratar uma prostituta.
Eles estavam bem protegidos e patrulhados.
Para combater as atividades de ladrões e salteadores, a maioria das estradas romanas eram patrulhadas por destacamentos especiais de tropas do exército imperial conhecidas como "stationarii" e "beneficiário". Esses soldados ocupavam postos policiais e torres de observação em áreas de alto tráfego e áreas remotas para ajudar a orientar viajantes vulneráveis. , retransmitir mensagens e manter-se atento aos escravos fugitivos. Eles também dobraram como coletores de pedágio. Como as rodovias modernas, as estradas romanas nem sempre eram gratuitas, e as tropas estavam sempre esperando para cobrar taxas ou impostos sobre as mercadorias sempre que a rota chegasse a uma ponte, passagem de montanha ou fronteira provincial.
Eles permitiram que os romanos mapeassem seu império em crescimento.
Muito do que os historiadores sabem sobre o sistema rodoviário de Roma é cortesia de um único artefato. Nomeado por seu proprietário medieval, Konrad Peutinger, a Tabela de Peutinger é uma cópia do século 13 de um mapa romano criado em algum momento do século IV dC Este atlas atraente foi desenhado em uma coleção de pergaminho de 22 pés de comprimento Mundo romano em cores, juntamente com vários milhares de nomes de lugares. As cidades são ilustradas com esboços de pequenas casas ou medalhões, mas o mapa também inclui os locais de faróis, pontes, estalagens, túneis e - o mais importante - o sistema rodoviário romano. Todas as principais estradas romanas são listadas, e o mapa até fornece as distâncias entre várias cidades e pontos de referência. O mapa de Peutinger provou-se indispensável para estudiosos que estudam o sistema de trânsito romano, mas os historiadores ainda debatem seu propósito original. Alguns afirmam que foi um guia de campo para figuras do governo que viajam em negócios oficiais, enquanto outros afirmam que ele foi exibido em um palácio imperial.
Eles foram construídos para durar.
Graças ao seu engenhoso design e construção cuidadosa, as estradas romanas permaneceram tecnologicamente inigualáveis ​​até o século XIX. Mas, embora as modernas rodovias de asfalto possam oferecer uma viagem mais tranquila do que a Via Domitiana ou a Via Appia, as estradas de 2000 anos de idade de Roma levam o prêmio pela durabilidade. Muitas estradas romanas foram usadas como vias principais até muito recentemente, e algumas delas - incluindo a Via Flaminia e a Grã-Bretanha Fosse Way - ainda carregam carros, bicicletas e pedestres ou servem como rota de orientação para rodovias. O duradouro legado de engenharia de Roma também pode ser visto nas dezenas de antigas pontes, túneis e aquedutos ainda em uso hoje.

Comércio interno.
O grão e o óleo serviram frequentemente como uma espécie de cunhagem [17]. Este uso de alimentos armazenáveis ​​básicos tinha vantagens e desvantagens. Se todo o dinheiro ganho fosse gasto em comida de qualquer maneira e praticamente não houvesse escolha sobre o tipo de comida que se pudesse obter, comer o salário era um sistema menos pesado do que ser remunerado em espécie e ter que adquirir a comida depois. Durante as fomes, que eram bastante freqüentes, não se passava fome se houvesse economia; e muitos camponeses subiram na escala social, trocando o milho acumulado por terra em tempos de escassez.
Por outro lado, armazenando as instalações necessárias para grãos. Desperdício por causa da água subterrânea, fogo e pragas como ratos e insetos era alto. As lojas não podiam ser escondidas, nem de ladrões nem de coletores de impostos. Os produtos volumosos eram mais difíceis de transportar do que os metais preciosos. Se as suas necessidades estavam fora do comum, você poderia ter que usar intermediários para conseguir o que queria. A questão da medição também surgiu, pois os frascos não eram exatamente de tamanho padronizado, e os pesos e escalas não eram fáceis de encontrar.
Então, como hoje, os negócios transcorreram suavemente enquanto houvesse boa vontade e ambas as partes fossem honestas: não mova as balanças nem altere os pesos,
Nem diminua as frações da medida;
Não faça um alqueire do dobro de seu tamanho,
Pois então você está indo para o abismo.
O alqueire é o Olho de Re,
Abomina aquele que corta;
M. Lichtheim, Ancient Egyptian Literature, vol. 2, p. p.157.
A troca de presentes.
Instituições como os templos eram frequentemente recipientes de presentes e redistribuíam pelo menos parte deles entre os necessitados.
Valores abstratos de equivalência.
Dado ao comerciante Minnakht:
Cabeças de vacas: 3, de ka-bulls: 9. 1 coxa de uma vaca wendju: vale 3 & frac12; seniu. Shait quebrado, vale 1 e frac12; seniu.
Total: 5 seniu de prata, valendo 3 seniu de ouro.
Segundo mês da temporada de inundação, dia 25.
Recebido do comerciante Baki:
2 & frac12; unidades de ouro como pagamento pela carne.
Traduzido de T. G.H. James Pharaos Volk.
Neste momento (ou seja, durante o reinado de Ramsés II) o cobre valeu 1/100 do seu peso em prata e um hekat de cevada 4 kit de prata e 84 deben de cobre. Nos tempos helenísticos, a proporção entre a prata e o cobre parece ter sido de cerca de 1/350.
Metal como meio de troca.
BMFA 27, n ° 164, dezembro de 1929, pp. 83-90.
Nenhum suporte arqueológico para a teoria de que os egípcios usavam metal cunhado durante o segundo milênio aC foi encontrado, enquanto grandes números de moedas do período helenístico foram descobertos. Pouco metal, precioso ou não, estava disponível para a população. Até o período tardio, ouro e prata eram usados ​​quase exclusivamente para as necessidades dos faraós, mortos ou vivos [13]. Grande parte do tesouro enterrado chegou ao mercado durante o fim do Novo Reino, quando as sepulturas foram roubadas de qualquer coisa que encontrasse um comprador. Um serviço geral sob Ramsés XI escreveu ao seu escriba. Quando esta carta chegar até você, então você deve preparar um deben de ouro e um deben de prata, e você deve enviá-lo para mim de barco.
Thesaurus Site da Linguae Aegyptiae Alt & auml; gyptisches W & ouml; rterbuch, Berlim-Brandenburgische Akademie der Wissenschaften = & gt; Briefe = & gt; Briefe des Neuen Reiches = & gt; Verwaltung / Alltag = & gt; Briefe aus Theben = & gt; Briefwechsel des Djehuti-mesu = & gt; pBerlin 10487 = & gt; Resumo dos Generais do Pharao e Tjary (Djehuti-mesu) & uuml; ber zwei Polizisten.
Durante o Império Novo, pelo menos a prata (HD-hedj) era um nome comum para 'meios de troca' [8], semelhante ao uso posterior de kesef na Bíblia hebraica.
Certificar-se do valor de uma dada quantidade de prata era importante. Embora o peso pudesse ser determinado pela pesagem, não havia uma maneira simples de conhecer a pureza do metal. A partir da 22ª dinastia, os documentos mencionam frequentemente instituições como o tesouro de Harsaphes, um tesouro de Tebas (período Saite) e o tesouro de Ptah em Memphis (período persa) como tendo emitido a prata em questão. Aparentemente, esses tesouros do templo agiram como garantia da qualidade do metal até que as autoridades estaduais começaram a emitir dinheiro inventado. [23]
A introdução de dinheiro.
Enquanto moedas de prata e de ouro eram usadas ocasionalmente, os bens comuns eram geralmente pagos em bronze [18], assim como em tempos anteriores os valores de troca foram calculados com base no padrão de cobre.
Moeda de ouro egípcia, tendo o peso de um stater.
Fonte: E. Chassinat, Une monnaie d 'or & agrave; l & eacute; gendes hi & eacute; roglyphues trouv & eacute; en & Eacute; gypte.
BIFAO 1 (1901) p.77.
O impacto que o dinheiro cunhado teve na economia doméstica e no comércio foi provavelmente pequeno até os tempos romanos, quando as práticas comerciais européias, como o pagamento de juros, se tornaram obrigatórias, e o acúmulo de riqueza tornou-se possível.
Mas ele não deu até hoje. Eu disse a Pa'akhet. Ele disse: Deixe-me ter mais uma cama e eu te trarei o boi quando crescer.
Eu dei a ele a cama. Nem o caixão nem a cama (foram pagos) até hoje. Se você quiser dar o boi, deixe alguém trazê-lo. (Mas) se não houver boi, deixe alguém trazer (de volta) a cama e o caixão.
Tradução de uma passagem de S. Allam Hieratische Ostraka e Papyri aus der Ramessidenzeit, T & uuml; bingen 1973.
Escrito no ano 28 (?), No dia 30 de Mesore.
Victoria-Museum, Uppsala, inv. não. 982
Minha tradução do alemão [11]
O desenvolvimento de um sistema bancário.
Registro APIS: michigan. apis.1864.
Durante o período helenístico, esse sistema bancário se tornou nacional e não apenas um fenômeno local. As contas eram mantidas em um banco central em Alexandria e os celeiros formavam uma rede giro.
Certificar-se da identidade de um mutuário foi de alguma conseqüência para o banco que registrou sua ascendência, idade, características físicas, profissão e afins:. através do banco de Sarapion da Stoa de Atena. Isidoros, filho de Marion, para Hermas, filho de Heron, neto de Hermas, da segunda ala de Goose Pen, com quarenta anos de idade com uma cicatriz no meio da testa, (reconhece) que ele (Hermas) recebeu de Isidoros um interesse. Empréstimo de um diretor de cento e vinte dracmas de prata, que ele vai pagar no mês de Pauni do ano em curso imediatamente.
Registro APIS: columbia. apis. p292.
Tauris Parke Paperbacks 2007, ISBN 1845113357, p.47.
Deixe sua mão não espalhá-lo para estranhos,
Para que não se transforme em perda para você.
Se a riqueza é colocada onde ela tem interesse,
Volta para você redobrada;
Faça um depósito para sua própria riqueza
Seu povo vai encontrá-lo no seu caminho.
O que é dado pequenos retornos aumentados,
[O que é substituído traz abundância.]
M. Lichtheim, antiga literatura egípcia vol. 2, p.
Os juros sobre empréstimos poderiam ser horrendos, sobretudo durante períodos de incerteza política. Taxas de 100% ou mais não eram desconhecidas (cf. uma nota promissória da 22a dinastia), durante o período de Saite eles alcançaram 10% por mês, mais de 200% anualmente. Essas taxas se comparam desfavoravelmente às de sociedades economicamente mais vibrantes, o império romano, por exemplo, onde normalmente eram fixadas em cerca de 12% [5] e ultrapassavam 15% apenas para empreendimentos de alto risco. No Egito, o incentivo para expandir o comércio através do crédito barato foi, talvez não surpreendentemente, em uma economia de comando, inexistente em grande parte de sua história.
Sob o domínio romano, o Egito foi integrado ao império, e os usos comerciais mudaram de acordo. Quando Chairemon, filho de Akousilaos, e sua esposa Thaubastis tomaram emprestados 84 dracmas [15], eles se comprometeram a devolver o dinheiro no ano seguinte e pagar juros de 12% [10]. Chairemon, analfabeto como sua esposa, agiu como seu guardião de acordo com a prática grega [7].
À medida que o Egito se abria para o mundo mediterrâneo, a incerteza crescia na vida econômica, e maiores riscos estavam sendo tomados pelos empresários, credores e autoridades começaram a exigir garantias: Ano 21, correspondendo ao ano 22, Mês de Tybi, do rei Ptolomeu III, vivendo para sempre, filho de Ptolomeu (II) e Arsinoe, os deuses irmãos.
Meder Petosiris, nascido no Egito, filho de Pasi, sua mãe é Sekhmet - / / /, diz a Apolônio, o oikonomos, e a Imhotep, filho de Pewer, o escriba real: "Fico com certeza para o cervejeiro da aldeia de Sobek, Perkethaut (= Philagris) Keltous, filho de Petosiris, como segurança pessoal: 3 de prata (deben), sua metade sendo 1 prata (deben), 5 kite, total 3 prata (deben) de novo, é minha incumbência em relação a você fazer com que ele apareça diante de você, estando fora de qualquer templo, lugar de juramento, altar real, (qualquer) lugar que seja protegido de você, é do ano 21, que corresponde ao ano 22, mês de Tybi, até o ano 22, que corresponde ao ano 23, mês de Phamenoth.
Depois de G. Vittmann, banco de dados democráticos, Akademie der Wissenschaften Mainz [21]
O crédito também pode ser obtido ao se comprometer com a propriedade. Os agiotas existiram no Egito pelo menos desde o Período Romano. Os itens principais a serem penhorados eram aparentemente jóias, mas móveis, utensílios de metal e utensílios também estavam penhorados:.
Os vasos de bronze de Cláudio (?) Severo foram redimidos quando o relatório de sua [propriedade?] Foi feito. e pagamento para os juros sobre o vínculo de Epeifo do 4º ano para Tybi [do 7º ano], um período de 31 meses, a uma taxa de 110 dracmas por mês, um total de 3.410 dracmas, e para o principal 1 talento 5.600 dracmas, e de Theon para a redenção de seu Aphrodite 400 dracmas, no valor de 2 talentos 3.410 dracmas de capital e juros. O restante . quatro mil e seiscentos dracmas, no total. talentos, 4.600 dracmas [são garantidos] pelas promessas restantes, que são. um par de braceletes, um par de xícaras, um par de tornozeleiras, um colar, um ornamento em forma de lança. Outro armário foi dado em adição.
Registro APIS: michigan. apis.1554.
Lugares do mercado.
Concordo, no augusto e divino juramento pelo nosso senhor, o Imperador e os Césares, de oferecer meus ovos no mercado publicamente, para venda e para o suprimento da dita cidade, todos os dias sem intervalo; e reconheço que será ilegal para mim, no futuro, vender secretamente ou em minha casa. Se eu for detectado fazendo isso (eu serei responsável pela penalidade por quebrar o juramento).
Os comerciantes.
O comércio exterior estava principalmente nas mãos de emissários reais. É também provável que muitos mercadores do interior fossem agentes da coroa ou das grandes propriedades dos templos [6]. Ramsés III descreveu o templo de Memphis Ptah:. Seus armazéns estavam transbordando de numerosos bens, arqueiros navais, coletores de mel, entregando incenso e entregando prata, mercadores sem número, entregas de grãos limpos aos dez mil.
James Henry Breasted Registros Antigos do Egito, Parte Quatro, & seita; 313
No total, a quantidade que podia ser transportada em navios de mar da época não era muito grande (os navios maiores deslocavam menos de 100 toneladas), com um pouco do peso desperdiçado nas embalagens. Se a cena do mercado na tumba de Qenamen for qualquer coisa, até mesmo os mercadores Theban que vendem sandálias parecem ter negociado com estrangeiros.
Registro APIS: michigan. apis.2876.
Registro APIS: michigan. apis.2876.
Registro APIS: michigan. apis.2876.
Registro APIS: michigan. apis.2876.
[3] Alguns pensam que, graças a essa demurrage, os egípcios não acumularam sua riqueza, mas continuaram a gastá-la, muitas vezes na melhoria e manutenção dos antigos templos e na construção de novos. Depois da conquista romana, taxas de juros positivas "normais" foram introduzidas no capital investido, e os locais de culto começaram a declinar.
[4] seniu: ou shat, usado até que o Novo Império, um duodécimo de um deben, cerca de 7.6 gramas, foi substituído pelo kit.
[8] De um novo Reino ostrakon encontrado em Deir el Medine [9]. "Prata" é usado para denotar valor em geral, o equivalente moderno seria "dinheiro", enquanto o valor citado é geralmente em cobre. Ano do reinado 1, 3o. T 22. Comunicação sobre a prata dada pelo operário Qen, filho de Parehotep, ao artesão Qedhatef:
Emmer: 5 sacos; 2 esteiras; vale a pena 10 deben; azeite: 2 jarros, vale 3 deben; sandálias masculinas: 1 par, vale 2 deben.
Soma: 15 deben de cobre.
[13] Na passagem seguinte de uma pedra memorial no templo de Osiris em Abydos Geb como o deus da terra abriga todos os tesouros escondidos no subsolo e Tenen é o deus eliminando todos os minerais: Seu (ou seja, Thutmose I) é o ouro, A tua é a prata, Geb revelou-te o que está escondido nele, Tenen deu-te as suas posses, todas as terras montanhosas servem-te, todas as terras planas estão sob o teu planeamento, todas as pedras preciosas estão encerradas na tua casa.
J. C. Hinrich, Leipzig, 1914.
[15] Os helenistas geralmente lidavam com dracmas e outros cunhados, enquanto entre os nativos egípcios usando Demotic o deben de prata ainda era usado. O contrato alimentar acordado pelo filho mais velho de Harmiysis e sua esposa começa: Você fez com que meu coração ficasse satisfeito (com) 11 (deben de) prata [das peças] do tesouro de Ptah, refinado, [totalizando 10 (deben of) silver] (e) 9 5/6 1/10 1/30 1/60 [1/60. . .] pipa .
Registro APIS: michigan. apis.2776.
[16] O autor da Instrução de Ankhsheshonq também tinha algumas idéias sobre como um mutuário deveria se comportar: emprestar dinheiro a juros e colocá-lo em terras agrícolas.
Pedir dinheiro a juros e ter uma esposa.
Emprestar dinheiro em juros e comemorar seu aniversário.
Não empreste dinheiro a juros para viver bem nele.
Após uma tradução alemã no site do Thesaurus Linguae Aegyptiae.
[21] Website do Thesaurus Linguae Aegyptiae = & gt; Banco de Dados Demográficos, Akademie für Sprache und Literatur Mainz = & gt; administrativo e dokumentarische Texte = & gt; B & uuml; rgschaften = & gt; Lille 35.
[22] Website do Thesaurus Linguae Aegyptiae = & gt; Banco de Dados Demográficos, Akademie für Sprache und Literatur Mainz = & gt; administrativo e dokumentarische Texte = & gt; B & uuml; rgschaften = & gt; Lille 42.

Sistema rodoviário romano.
Sistema rodoviário romano, notável rede de transporte do antigo mundo mediterrâneo, que se estende desde a Grã-Bretanha até o sistema fluvial do rio Tigre-Eufrates e do rio Danúbio até a Espanha e o norte da África. Ao todo, os romanos construíram 50.000 milhas (80.000 km) de rodovias de superfície dura, principalmente por razões militares.
A primeira das grandes estradas romanas, a Via Appia, iniciada pelo censor Ápio Cláudio Caecus em 312 aC, originalmente corria do sudeste de Roma 162 km (261 km) até Tarento (agora Taranto) e mais tarde foi estendida à Costa do Adriático em Brundisium (agora Brindisi). A longa ramificação que atravessava a Calábria até o estreito de Messina era conhecida como a Via Popilia. By the beginning of the 2nd century bce , four other great roads radiated from Rome: the Via Aurelia, extending northwest to Genua (Genoa); the Via Flaminia, running north to the Adriatic, where it joined the Via Aemilia, crossed the Rubicon, and led northwest; the Via Valeria, east across the peninsula by way of Lake Fucinus (Conca del Fucino); and the Via Latina, running southeast and joining the Via Appia near Capua. Their numerous feeder roads extending far into the Roman provinces led to the proverb “All roads lead to Rome.”
The Roman roads were notable for their straightness, solid foundations, cambered surfaces facilitating drainage, and use of concrete made from pozzolana (volcanic ash) and lime. Though adapting their technue to materials locally available, the Roman engineers followed basically the same principles in building abroad as they had in Italy. In 145 bce they began the Via Egnatia, an extension of the Via Appia beyond the Adriatic into Greece and Asia Minor, where it joined the ancient Persian Royal Road.
In northern Africa the Romans followed up their conquest of Carthage by building a road system that spanned the south shore of the Mediterranean. In Gaul they developed a system centred on Lyon, whence main roads extended to the Rhine, Bordeaux, and the English Channel. In Britain the purely strategic roads following the conquest were supplemented by a network radiating from London. In Spain, on the contrary, the topography of the country dictated a system of main roads around the periphery of the peninsula, with secondary roads developed into the central plateaus.
The Roman road system made possible Roman conquest and administration and later provided highways for the great migrations into the empire and a means for the diffusion of Christianity. Despite deterioration from neglect, it continued to serve Europe throughout the Middle Ages, and many fragments of the system survive today.

Roman trade system

Economy in Ancient Rome.
Ancient Rome commanded a vast area of land, with tremendous natural and human resources. As such, Rome's economy remained focused on farming and trade. Agricultural free trade changed the Italian landscape, and by the 1st century BC, vast grape and olive estates had supplanted the yeoman farmers, who were unable to match the imported grain price. The annexation of Egypt, Sicily and Tunisia in North Africa provided a continuous supply of grains. In turn, olive oil and wine were Italy's main exports. Two-tier crop rotation was practiced, but farm productivity was low, around 1 ton per hectare.
Industrial and manufacturing activities were smaller. The largest such activities were the mining and quarrying of stones, which provided basic construction materials for the buildings of that period. In manufacturing, production was on a relatively small scale, and generally consisted of workshops and small factories that employed at most dozens of workers. However, some brick factories employed hundreds of workers.
The economy of the early Republic was largely based on smallholding and paid labor. However, foreign wars and conquests made slaves increasingly cheap and plentiful, and by the late Republic, the economy was largely dependent on slave labor for both skilled and unskilled work. Slaves are estimated to have constituted around 20% of the Roman Empire's population at this time and 40% in the city of Rome. Only in the Roman Empire, when the conquests stopped and the prices of slaves increased, did hired labor become more economical than slave ownership.
Although barter was used in ancient Rome, and often used in tax collection, Rome had a very developed coinage system, with brass, bronze, and precious metal coins in circulation throughout the Empire and beyondСsome have even been discovered in India. Before the 3rd century BC, copper was traded by weight, measured in unmarked lumps, across central Italy. The original copper coins (as) had a face value of one Roman pound of copper, but weighed less. Thus, Roman money's utility as a unit of exchange consistently exceeded its intrinsic value as metal. After Nero began debasing the silver denarius, its legal value was an estimated one-third greater than its intrinsic value.
Horses were too expensive and other pack animals too slow. Mass trade on the Roman roads connected military posts, not markets, and were rarely designed for wheels. As a result, there was little transport of commodities between Roman regions until the rise of Roman maritime trade in the 2nd century BC. During that period, a trading vessel took less than a month to complete a trip from Gades to Alexandria via Ostia, spanning the entire length of the Mediterranean. Transport by sea was around 60 times cheaper than by land, so the volume for such trips was much larger.
Some economists like Peter Temin consider the Roman Empire a market economy, similar in its degree of capitalistic practices to 17th century Netherlands and 18th century England.
Commerce and Trade.
Roman trade was the engine that drove the Roman economy of the late Republic and the early Empire. Fashions and trends in historiography and in popular culture have tended to neglect the economic basis of the empire in favor of the lingua franca of Latin and the exploits of the Roman legions. The language and the legions were supported by trade while being at the same time part of its backbone. Romans were businessmen and the longevity of their empire was due to their commercial trade.
Whereas in theory members of the Roman Senate and their families were prohibited from engaging in trade, the members of the Equestrian order were involved in businesses, despite their upper class values that laid the emphasis on military pursuits and leisure activities. Plebeians and freedmen held shop or manned stalls at markets while vast quantities of slaves did most of the hard work. The slaves were themselves also the subject of commercial transactions. Their high proportion in society (compared to that in Classical Greece), and the reality of runaways, the Roman Servile Wars and minor uprisings, they gave a distinct flavor to Roman commerce.
The intricate, complex, and extensive accounting of Roman trade was conducted with counting boards and the Roman abacus. The abacus, using Roman numerals, was ideally suited to the counting of Roman currency and tallying of Roman measures.
The Romans knew two types of businessmen, the negotiatores and the mercatores. The negotiatores were in part bankers because they lent money on interest. They also bought and sold staples in bulk or did commerce in wholesale quantities of goods. In some instances the argentarii are considered as a subset of the negotiatores and in others as a group apart.
The argentarii acted as agents in public or private auctions, kept deposits of money for individuals, cashed cheques (prescriptio) and served as moneychangers. They kept strict books, or tabulae, which were considered as legal proof by the courts. The argentarii sometimes did the same kind of work as the mensarii, who were public bankers appointed by the state. The mercatores were usually plebeians or freedmen. They were present in all the open-air markets or covered shops, manning stalls or hawking goods by the side of the road. They were also present near Roman military camps during campaigns, where they sold food and clothing to the soldiers and paid cash for any booty coming from military activities.
There is some information on the economy of Roman Palestine from Jewish sources of around the 3rd century AD. Itinerant pedlars (rochel) took spices and perfumes to the rural population. This suggests that the economic benefits of the Empire did reach, at least, the upper levels of the peasantry.
The Forum Cuppedinis in ancient Rome was a market which offered general goods. At least four other large markets specialized in specific goods such as cattle, wine, fish and herbs and vegetables, but the Roman forum drew the bulk of the traffic.
All new cities, like Timgad, were laid out according to an orthogonal grid plan which facilitated transportation and commerce. The cities were connected by good roads. Navigable rivers were extensively used and some canals were dug but neither leave such clear archaeology as roads and consequently they tend to be underestimated. A major mechanism for the expansion of trade was peace. All settlements, especially the smaller ones, could be located in economically rational positions. Before and after the Roman Empire, hilltop defensive positions were preferred for small settlements and piracy made coastal settlement particularly hazardous for all but the largest cities.
Even before the republic, the Roman Kingdom was engaged in regular commerce using the river Tiber. Before the Punic Wars completely changed the nature of commerce in the Mediterranean, the Roman republic had important commercial exchanges with Carthage. It entered into several commercial and political agreements with its rival city in addition to engaging in simple retail trading. The Roman Empire traded with the Chinese over the Silk Road.
Maritime archeology and ancient manuscripts from classical antuity show evidence of vast Roman commercial fleets. The most substantial remains from this commerce are the infrastructure remains of harbors, moles, warehouses and lighthouses at ports such as Civitavecchia, Ostia, Portus, Leptis Magna and Caesarea Maritima. At Rome itself, Monte Testaccio is a tribute to the scale of this commerce. As with most Roman technology, the Roman sea going commercial ships had no significant advances over Greek ships of the previous centuries, though the lead sheeting of hulls for protection seems to have been more common.
The Romans used round hulled sailing ships. Continuous Mediterranean "police" protection over several centuries was one of the main factors of success of Roman commerce, given that Roman roads were designed more for feet or hooves than for wheels, and could not support the economical transport of goods over long distances. The Roman ships used would have been easy prey for pirates had it not been for the fleets of Liburnian galleys and triremes of the Roman navy.
Bulky low-valued commodities, like grain and construction materials were traded only by sea routes, since the cost of sea transportation was 60 times lower than land. Staple goods and commodities like cereals for making bread and papyrus scrolls for book production were imported from Ptolemaic Egypt to Italy in a continuous fashion.
The trade over the Indian Ocean blossomed in the 1st and 2nd century CE. The sailors made use of the monsoon to cross the ocean from the ports of Berenice, Leulos Limen and Myos Hormos on the Red Sea coast of Roman Egypt to the ports of Muziris and Nelkynda in Malabar coast. The main trading partners in southern India were the Tamil dynasties of the Pandyas, Cholas and Cheras. Many Roman artifacts have been found in India; for example, at the archaeological site of Arikamedu near present day Pondicherry. Meticulous descriptions of the ports and items of trade around the Indian Ocean can be found in the Greek work Periplus of the Erythraean Sea.
Trade contacts were made with India. Hoards of Roman coins have been found in southern India during the history of Roman-India trade. Roman objects have been found in India in the seaside port city of Arikamedu, which was a center of trade during this era.
The Hou Hanshu (History of the Later Han Chinese dynasty) recounted the first of several Roman embassies to China sent out by a Roman Emperor, probably Marcus Aurelius judging by the arrival date of 166 (Antoninus Pius is another possibility, but he died in 161. The confusion arises because Marcus Aurelius took the names of his predecessor as additional names, as a mark of respect and so is referred to in Chinese history as "An Tun", i. e. "Antoninus"). The mission came from the South, and therefore probably by sea, entering China by the frontier of Jinan or Tonkin. It brought presents of rhinoceros horns, ivory, and tortoise shell which had probably been acquired in Southern Asia.
The mission reached the Chinese capital of Luoyang in 166 and was met by Emperor Huan of the Han Dynasty. About the same time, and possibly through this embassy, the Chinese acquired a treatise of astronomy from Daqin (Rome).
However, in the absence of any record of this on the Roman side of the silk road, it may be that the "ambassadors" were in reality free traders acting independently of Aurelius.
From the 3rd century a Chinese text, the Weilue, describes the products of the Roman Empire and the routes to it.
Commerce and Religion.
Mercury, who was originally only the god of the mercatores and the grain trade eventually became the god of all who were involved in commercial activities. On the Mercuralia on May 14, a Roman merchant would do the proper rituals of devotion to Mercury and beseech the god to remove from him and from his belongings the guilt coming from all the cheating he had done to his customers and suppliers.
The majority of the people of the Roman Empire were living in destitution, with an insignificant part of the population engaged in commerce, being much poorer than the elite. The industrial output was minimal, due to the fact that the majority poor could not pay for the markets for products. Technological advance was severely hampered by this fact. Urbanization in the western part of the empire was also minimal due to the poverty of the region. Slaves accounting for most of the means of industrial output, rather than technology.
For centuries the monetary affairs of the Roman Republic had rested in the hands of the Senate. These elite liked to present themselves as steady and fiscally conservative.
The aerarium (state treasury) was supervised by members of the government rising in power and prestige, the Quaestors, Praetors, and eventually the Prefects. With the dawn of the Roman Empire, a major change took place, as the emperors assumed the reins of financial control. Augustus adopted a system that was, on the surface, fair to the senate. Just as the world was divided in provinces designated as imperial or senatorial, so was the treasury. All tribute brought in from senatorially controlled provinces was given to the aerarium, while that of the imperial territories went to the treasury of the emperor, the fiscus.
Initially, this process of distribution seemed to work, although the legal technicality did not disguise the supremacy of the emperor or his often used right to transfer funds back and forth regularly from the aerarium to the fiscus. The fiscus actually took shape after the reign of Augustus and Tiberius. It began as a private fund (fiscus meaning purse or basket) but grew to include all imperial monies, not only the private estates but also all public lands and finances under the imperial eye.
The property of the rulers grew to such an extent that changes had to be made starting sometime in the 3rd century, most certainly under Septimius Severus. Henceforth the imperial treasury was divided. The fiscus was retained to handle actual government revenue, while a patrimonium was created to hold the private fortune, the inheritance of the royal house. There is a considerable question as to the exact nature of this evaluation, involving possibly a res privata so common in the Late Empire.
Just as the senate had its own finance officers, so did the emperors. The head of the fiscus in the first years was the rationalis, originally a freedman due to Augustus' desire to place the office in the hands of a servant free of the class demands of the traditional society. In succeeding years the corruption and reputation of the freedman forced new and more reliable administrators. From the time of Hadrian (117-138), any rationalis hailed from the Equestrian Order (equites) and remained so through the chaos of the 3rd century and into the age of Diocletian.
With Diocletian came a series of massive reforms, and total control over the finances of the Empire fell to the now stronger central government. Under Constantine this aggrandizement continued with the emergence of an appointed minister of finance, the comes sacrarum largitionum (count of the sacred largesses). He maintained the general treasury and the intake of all revenue. His powers were directed toward control of the new sacrum aerarium, the result of the combination of the aerarium and the fiscus.
The comes sacrarum largitionum was a figure of tremendous influence. He was responsible for all taxes, examined banks, mints and mines everywhere, watched over all forms of industry, and paid out the budgets of the many departments of the state. To accomplish these many tasks, he was aided by a vast bureaucracy. Just below the comes sacrarum were the rationales positioned in each diocese. They acted as territorial chiefs, sending out agents, the rationales summarum, to collect all money in tribute, taxes, or fees. They could go virtually anywhere and were the most visible extension of the government in the 4th and 5th centuries.
Only the praetorian prefects who were responsible for the supply of the army, the imperial armament factories, weaving mills, the maintenance of the state post and the magister officiorum and the comes rerum privatarum could counter the political and financial weight of the comes sacrarum largitionum. The magister officiorum (master of offices) made all the major decisions concerning intelligence matters, receiving a large budget, over which the comes sacrarum largitionum probably only had partial authority. After the end of Constantine's reign the comes sacrarum largitionum gradually lost power to the prefects as the taxes of his department came to be collected more and more in gold rather than in kin. By the 5th century their diocesan level staff were no longer of much importance, although they continued in their duties.
Given the increased size of the imperial estates and holdings, the res privata not only survived but was also officially divided into two different treasuries, the res privatae of actual lands and the patromonium sacrae, or imperial inheritance. Both were under the jurisdiction of the comes rerum privatarum. He also took in any rents or dues from imperial lands and territories.

Ancient Roman Trade.
Ancient Roman trade is a subject of many facets particularly when we consider that ancient Rome is difficult to define in terms of time and extension: “Ancient Rome” lasted close to a millennium and the culture, society and world within it existed changed enormously. so too the extent of Ancient Rome ranged from a few […]
Ancient Roman trade is a subject of many facets particularly when we consider that ancient Rome is difficult to define in terms of time and extension: “Ancient Rome” lasted close to a millennium and the culture, society and world within it existed changed enormously. so too the extent of Ancient Rome ranged from a few villages on hilltops near the river Tiber across to an enormous empire. Rome alone grew to having over 1 million inhabitants.
Having set the above conditions it is evident that this essay will have to make a number of simplifications, give some ideas as to the fundamental mechanisms involved and point to areas of further investigation.
An ideal example to investigate is the wine trade, such as was active in cities such as Pompeii because it has left many examples and traces behind, ranging from references in literature through to inscriptions and entire farms, not to mention shiploads of amphoras along the coasts of countries it was exported to.
Before looking at the various details of such trade it is important to set some essential points:
It is worth noting that trade was bi-directional: Rome itself was often in need of imports of grain and wine for example to support the livelihood of the enormous population and these supplies wouldn’t necessarily come from other parts of Italy. There was, by-and-large, free trade with a single Roman currency throughout the empire. This fostered competition and enabled all sorts of exotic goods to be acquired from the most distant lands. A couple of interesting examples of Roman free trade and its effects are:
Some Roman mosaics showing bowls of fruit containing pineapples: Pineapples don’t grow anywhere near Italy! When Pompeii was hit by the volcano there was a huge effect on the agricultural markets, two year’s worth of wine production were affected and hence so too was the price of wine which saw a sharp increase. The surge in demand for wine (or rather the sharp reduction in supply) meant that other land which was dedicated to grain and other foodstuffs was switched to wine, hence creating a temporary knock-on effect on food supplies and prices.
Military campaigns brought land & wealth & slaves to those who had financed the campaigns (the patrician upper class families/the Roman state) and eventually make their way onto Rome’s markets. The land might be redistributed as retirement payment to the soldiers. Much of the wealth and booty would be redistributed to those who financed the campaigns, similarly to wealthy businessmen financing financial ventures and to some degree to the state and retiring soldiers (1.5 hectares each). Land distribution was a bone of contention with the plebeians who saw themselves fight the wars but gain little from them (see the Roman social wars and Gracchi brothers). Patricians spend the wealth on land and large holdings which they farm intensively by use of the cheap slaves which had been taken during the campaigns. The cost of a slave varied greatly , also in line with supply and availability. But on the whole we might consider the cost of a slave being similar to the cost of purchasing a motorbike or car nowadays (including the second hand market). People working with or for the Patricians would then ship and trade the produce into the provinces and along trade routes which are either hospitable or rendered hospitable by yet more military campaigns. frequently the merchants were well ahead of the military campaigns, a great example below is that of the wine trade in Gaul in exchange for slaves which actually came to an abrupt stop because of the military invasion of the region by Caesar. very much as we see in modern economies, this economic cycle generated a number of supporting trades such as pottery and Roman amphoras to carry the produce, infrastructure construction and shipbuilding to carry it to various markets where there might be strongest demand, not to mention the lucrative businesses of money lending and banking.
The above cycle came somewhat unstuck when the empire’s expansionist period came to an end around the 2nd century AD and hence reducing the flow of cheap slavery, forcing the landowning upper class to sell or break up their vast land into smaller tenancies which paid a regular tribute, similar to the the “tithes” in medieval Britain.
Trade and economy can also be said to be an expression of the people who make up society and of the relationship between these people. At the end of the day, a market economy is founded on entrepreneurs: individuals who have a particular drive to make something out of nothing, who are able to quantify risks, are operating in an environment which has suitable infrastructure and of course have access to finance. Rome was full of such examples, from both ends of the social pyramid and even including a number of the slaves. We can perceive something of this from a good number of funeral engravings, memorials and tomb stones, for example a tomb stone depicting an ancient Roman family wine trade.
An interesting example of the understanding for investment and luidity is to be had from Cicero who suggested that if you were going to luidate part of your capital it would be better to sell off your vineyards rather than woodland since timber could easily be sold in times of need, ie easier to luidate if necessary.
The ancient Roman wine trade:
A quick look at the development of the mediterranean wine trade gives great insight into some of the factors.
The Greeks were first to achieve mass production of wine for export which quickly made its way into southern and central Italy. However the Etruscans were also quick to start their own mass production for both internal consumption and export. From the end of the 7 th Century BC the major Etruscancentres were Vulci and Caere in central Italy, not distant to the North of Rome which given their position enjoyed good demand from the Celtic north. It is the amphoras of easily identifiable shape which enable such commerce to be analised and tracked along the Tyrrhenian sea to Provence and Catalunia along the Rhine and into central Europe. This Italic production was also enjoyed by the Greek Marseilles where between the years 600 and 530BC Roman wine constituted some 90% of all wine imports.
A similar supply-demand mechanism is to be found with the increase in wine production in southern France which gradually enabled Etruscan imports to be limited.
During this period Rome was seeing a continuous growth in its fortunes. We shouldn’t forget that the Roman kings of the time were principally Etruscans with a clear view of international trade and access to the necessary information, yet wine production didn’t increase significantly: available farming land had to be dedicated to the growth of cereals to feed the population. This need was undone around the 3rd century BC when Rome managed to take control of Sicily – a true granary within the Mediterranean area – hence allowing farmland in central Italy to be dedicated to the growth of higher quality product.
It is of interest to note that conquest of Sicily involved direct confrontation with Carthage, which in turn was a great stimulus to Ancient Roman investment in naval skills, technology and infrastructure: essential to enabling flourishing international trade.
Dressel 1: Roman attitude to international commerce by sea was initially very cautious, we shouldn’t forget that the investments were made directly and at personal level by the Senatorial class and a single storm at sea could easily wipe out an entire year’s investment. During the 2 nd century BC the situation changed dramatically when such risks were outweighed by the immense profitability and strong economic boom brought by increasing access to cheap slavery. This surge of export can be identified by the vast finds of “Dressel 1” type Roman amphoras.
Wine from central Italy and Campania flowed in copious quantities into Gaul, Spain, North Africa and central Europe. The Roman merchants were frequently well ahead of the military. Estimates suggest that during the course of one century some 40milion amphoras were exported to Gaul alone. This is reflected in the 60 or so sunk ships found with Dressel1 amphoras along the French coast.
Diodorus Siculus (Bibliotheca Universalis 5,36,1) suggests the Gauls were so thirsty for Roman wine that they would exchange an amphora of wine for a slave which clearly strengthened Roman dominance of wine production.
Beyond Dressel1 amphoras:
Caesar’s conquest of Gaul mid 1 st C BC put an end to such lucrative slaves-for-wine Roman trade and enforced a more rational usage of agricultural land as had already happened in other regions of the budding empire. By the time of Augustus who followed Caesar to power, Rome’s population had reached more than 1M people and this necessarily implied importing food and wine from all parts of the empire, spurring the creation of yet more foreign production centres.
Economies of transport:
Whilst we can superficially take ancient Roman economy to be a market based capitalistic competitive approach. Roman technology and infrastructure weren’t so advanced as to enable a perfectly luid economic mechanism: transport by sea was far cheaper than that over land and this generated some significant distortions: local Italian inland produce could economically travel some 100km and hence scarcely compete with the cheap imports from abroad. These dynamics particularly affected the production of wines intended for the mass markets: Italic wines were therefore forced to opt for quality/high value status which, so Galen tells us in the 2 nd Century AC, foreign wine producers continued to attempted to forge and unsuccessfully replace.
Amphoras for wine transport were replaced by the Gaulish barrel, known as “cupa”, around the end of the 2 nd century AD. Wooden containers had been well known for some 4 centuries already although the Roman merchants and consumers had long distrusted them as producing poisoning effects (Natural History bk 16). Nevertheless the barrel’s advantages in terms of cost and lightness outweighed any effects it might have in terms of reduced conservation of wine flavour and bouquet.
Shopping in Ancient Rome.
Clearly, a fundamental mainstay of all economic and trade systems is the possibility of bring the produce to consumers and selling it. In Rome this was achieved through a well developed system of shops along streets as well as markets and dedicated “Forums“, so for example there would be a forum for meat (the Forum Boarium), a forum which had money lenders etc and of course a currency and coinage system to permit trading and lending. More is said about Shopping in Ancient Rome.

Roman Coins.
Roman Coins.
Bartering Goods Soon Became Impractical.
The Roman economy, from its founding and establishment as a Republic, through to the fifth and fourth centuries BC was a system of barter and community trade. All manner of trade goods, farm products, livestock and services were used as a means of exchange. As Rome grew, and the need for a system other than barter with it, lumps of bronze and other base metals began to be used in lieu of the exchange of one good for another. These lumps, called Aes Rude (raw bronze), could be used not only as coinage but also in large enough quantities, they could be melted down for the manufacturing of various metal tools and objects.
The First Roman Coin. and the Difficulty of Giving Change!
As time passed and the circulation of Aes Rude became more common, the Romans and their neighbors began to rely on this simple system of economic transfer. The first true Roman coin, the Aes Signatum (signed bronze), replaced the Aes Rude sometime around the start of the 3rd century BC. These were more than lumps of metal, in that they were cast, had a regular and discernable rectangular shape and were stamped with raised designs. The Aes Signatum carried a particular value and were cast with marks indicating the government authority. Each was cast at a weight standard of 1600 grams so weighing by traders would not have to be done at each transaction. This rather hefty weight, however, along with the single denomination made making change a fragment cutting affair. This system obviously carried inherent problems and would very quickly be in need of a replacement.
Coins in Different Denominations Made Trading Much Easier.
Within only a few years of the introduction of the Aes Signatum, a new more clearly defined, and easily traded form of coin replaced it. Aes Grave (heavy bronze), appearing sometime around 269 BC, came in several denominations, making them more functional and popular. Allowing for several varieties surely increased the circulation of coinage in ancient Rome and also made trading with other civilizations more practical. The Aes were molded with carvings of exotic animals or gods, and later were commonly issued with a ship's prow. This coinage was likely the primary issue in Rome until about 215 BC, and it would eventually evolve into the base unit of Roman currency, the As.
Roman Silver Coins.
Overlapping the circulation of the Aes Grave, was the introduction of silver coinage. During the 3rd century BC, Roman moneyers were forced to become more compliant with other cultures for ease in trade. The Greeks had been producing silver coins since the 7th century BC, and silver was the basis of their system. The Romans imported Greek artisans and began minting silver coins of their own, albeit with a style heavily influenced by Greece. The first of these silver produced for Rome were a series of didrachms (called quadrigati for the inclusion of the four horsed chariot imagery) minted during the outbreak of war with Pyrrhus. These coins were struck in Neapolis and were most likely made to be compliant with the trading specification of the Greek colonies in southern Italy. These were later replaced by a coin of roughly half the size (3.4 grams) called the victoriatus to commemorate the defeat of Carthage in the Punic Wars.
The Silver Denarius.
The denarius - the silver coin that would become the mainstay of the Roman economy - was first struck in 211 BC and was valued originally at 10 asses (As). Approximately a century later, in 118 BC, it was revalued at 16 asses to reflect the shrinking size of the bronze and copper As. Minting of highly valued gold coinage, in the Republic, was only issued in times of dire need. The aureus was the primary gold coin of the Roman empire and was introduced in the late republic during the time of the imperators. The aureus carried a fixed value of 25 denarii and its larger value would ease the burden of money transfers during times of war.
The Silver Content of the Denarius Declines in Purity Over Time.
While the denarius remained the backbone of the Roman economy for five centuries, the silver content and accompanying value slowly decreased over time. This debasement of the metal purity in coins fluctuated with the strength of the Empire and was mainly an indication of the state lacking precious metals, reduced treasury, and inflation. When first introduced the denarius contained nearly 4.5 grams of pure silver and remained that way throughout most of the Republican period. With the establishement of the Imperial system the denarius remained fairly constant under the Julio Claudians at 4 grams of silver. With the accession of Nero, however, the content was debased to 3.8 grams, perhaps as a reflection of the high cost of rebuilding the city and his palace, after the fires.
The Silver Antoninianus.
By the reign of Caracalla in the early 3rd century AD, the denarius had dipped to less than 50% purity. In 215 AD he introduced the Antoninianus , commonly referred to as the "radiate" due to the obverse images of the emperors with a radiate crown. The 60% pure silver Antoninianus was valued at two denarii, but contained no more than 1.6 times the amount of silver of the denarius. The savings for the treasury by issuing a double value coin with less than double the silver content is obvious. As antoninianii increased, the minting of denarii decreased, until it ceased to be issued in significant quantities by the middle of the third century AD.
The Cost of War Led to the Debasement of Silver Currency.
The mid third century saw the outbreak of anarchy. After the reign of Gordian III (238-244 AD), Persians and Germanics began to invade the frontier of the empire. A succession of Legionary Legates fought a progressive fifty-year civil war and large armies were raised. The treasury needed increasing amounts of silver to fund them. Mints were set up close to the armies so that the soldiers could be paid, but the demand for silver debased the coinage once again. By the reign of Valerian (253-260 AD), the antoninianus was only 20 - 40% silver. When Valerian was captured by the Sassanians, his son, Gallienus, issued bronze antoninianii with a silver coating. His need of coinage was so desperate that he was minting up to one million coins per day.
Emperors Aurelian and Diocletian Attempt to Tackle the Debasement Issue.
This constant debasement of Roman coins was finally countered by Aurelian in 274 AD. He set the minting standard for silver in the antoninianus at twenty parts copper to one part silver, and the coins were actually stamped as containing that amount. Aurelian's reform had little effect, however, and coins continued to be minted with a lesser level of purity. In 301 AD, true reform came to the minting process with the ascension of Diocletian. He developed a strict system of purity standards with the gold Aureus struck at 60 to the pound, a new silver coin struck at the old rates during the reign of Nero, and a new large bronze coin that contained two percent silver. He eliminated the Antoninianus and replaced with it several new denominations like the Argenteus and the Follis.
Roman Coins at the End of the Empire.
Within a couple of decades, Constantine would come to power and the empire would see its final changes in the monetary system, before its fall. The gold Solidus and silver Siluae were introduced at this time and themes on coinage slowly began to take on a new dimension. Coins were minted with idealistic portraits and not the customary true imagery of the emperor. With the moving of the capital to Byzantium, a Greek influence returned to many issues, and even slight references to Christianity were made. The inclusion of the Christogram, while not completely replacing the images of the Roman pantheon, marked a distinct change in the religion of the state. By the fall of the west in 476 AD, the distinction between Roman and Barbaric issues is non-existent, and Byzantine coinage replaces Roman as the currency of the Mediterranean.

Ancient Roman Economy.
A Simple Yet Powerful Economy.
For all of the glory and grandeur of Ancient Rome, the Roman economy never developed into anything terribly complex compared to modern economies. Ancient Rome was an agrarian and slave based economy whose main concern was feeding the vast number of citizens and legionaries who populated the Mediterranean region. Agriculture and trade dominated Roman economic fortunes, only supplemented by small scale industrial production.
The staple crops of Roman farmers in Italy were various grains, olives, and grapes. Olive oil and wine, outside of direct food stuffs, were among the most important products in the ancient civilized world and led Italy's exports. Romans did use a limited form of 2 tier crop rotation, but crop production was largely low output and required a vast number of slaves to operate at any volume.
Farmers could donate surplus crops to the government in lieu of a monetary tax. This system allowed both Republican and Imperial rulers to gain popularity with the masses through free grain distribution and also help to feed the legions at no direct monetary cost. Unfortunately it also left farmers with little incentive to increase productivity or output, since more crop translated to more taxes (and more free grain distributions). Citizens grew dependent on these grain doles and the large volume of trade that ensued.
The Roman Market Economy.
The Importance of Grain Facilitated Expansion and Conquest.
The need to secure grain providing provinces was one of many important factors that would lead to the expansion and conquests of the Roman State. Among these conquests were the provinces of Egypt, Sicily and Tunisia in North Africa. These areas were of vital importance in the processing and shipment of grain to Rome. Grain was shipped directly to Ostia, the official port of Rome, and penalties for disruption of the most direct route included deportation or execution. Once delivered to Ostia the grain was weighed, checked for quality, and then sent up the Tiber River on barges to Rome, where it would be repacked for distribution throughout the Empire.
Trade Goods and Manufacturing.
While the production and transportation of foods dominated the trading industry, there was also a vast exchange of other goods from all parts of Europe, Asia, and Africa. The prosperity of the Empire and many of it citizens generated a need for luxurious and exotic imports. Silks from China and the Far East, cotton and spices from India, Ivory and wild animals from Africa, vast amounts of mined metals from Spain and Britain, fossilized amber gems from Germany and slaves from all over the world discovered that all roads did indeed "lead to Rome."
The importance of industry and manufacturing was comparatively light to that of agriculture. The growth and influence of the Empire can not be underestimated, however. The largest industry in ancient Rome was mining, which provided the stones for the enormous building projects and metals for tools and the weapons that conquered the western world. Greece and northern Italy provided marble for the buildings that awed the ancients and modern people alike. Large quantities of gold and silver were mined in Spain to mint coins and create jewelry, while mines in Britain produced iron, lead and tin for weapons. Cities and towns throughout the empire established small-scale manufacturing plants which turned out hand-made pottery, glassware, weapons, tools, jewelry and textiles.
Trade Routes and Infrastructure.
Extensive trade routes were established on land and sea. The Roman roads are one lasting legacy of Roman domination and many are still in use today. While a benefit of a large network of roads was the transport of goods, their most significant purpose was the fast mobilization of the legions.
Following in the wake of marching soldiers, vast numbers of goods were carried along these roads. Transporting goods by land was slow and expensive, however, as large loads in wagons and carriages were pulled by lumbering oxen. Large, slow shipments were vulnerable to raids and adverse weather so faster horse drawn loads were used, but they could only deliver lighter cargos. Caravans of camels or donkeys carried loaded baskets called panniers and some goods were hauled by slaves, providing cheap labor. Trade by land was only profitable if goods were going short distances or if the cargo was small, expensive luxury items.
Most large-volume, cumbersome goods, such as food, precious metals, stones and building supplies, were shipped by water. Numerous sea lanes provided cheap and easy access to all parts of the Mediterranean. The consolidation of the Roman navy under Augustus virtually wiped the threat of piracy out, but inclement weather, inaccurate charts and poor navigational equipment could still wreak havoc on a convoy. Still despite the dangers, there was no better way to move cargo than by ship.
Romans thrived off of imported goods, and importers were among the wealthiest citizens of the Empire. The trading of goods for goods barter system was alive and well in the ancient world, but the Romans also used one of the world's most developed coinage systems. Coins of brass, bronze, copper, silver and gold in the Imperial system were minted and circulated under strict rules for weights, sizes, value and metal composition. The popularity and value of Roman coins became so great that they could be found as far east as India. Roman coins were greatly detailed and of high artisanship, and often were used as tools by the Emperors to circulate various forms of news and propaganda to the people and the world. In fact, numismatics (the study of ancient coins), is among the greatest sources of historical facts, events and living conditions as it relates to the Romans.
Discover More About The Economy of Ancient Rome.
Visit the sections below to find out more information regarding various different elements of the economy of Ancient Rome.